Reconciling conservation and development requires enhanced integration and broader aims: A cross- continental assessment of landscape approaches

Expectations for agricultural landscapes in subtropical and tropical regions are high, aiming for conservation
and development amid climate change, unfair trade, poverty, and environmental degradation. Landscape ap-
proaches (LAs) are gaining momentum as means to reconcile expectations, although they face multiple chal-
lenges, including unclear distinctions among LAs and stakeholder involvement. We studied 380 LAs from
three continents via questionnaires with landscape managers (2012–2015 and 2021) and identified three LA
types through cluster analysis: an ‘‘integrated’’ type with longer-term, multisectoral goals involving various
stakeholders early in the design and two shorter-term types focused on sectoral priorities of preservation
or production. Better-performing LAs are associated with longevity, inclusivity, and diversified investments
across goals, notably those enabling social justice. International stakeholder analysis shows broad support
for LAs but identifies gaps between support and LAs’ needs. The growing interest in LAs is promising. Yet,
underpinning effective and lasting LAs that reconcile multiple expectations requires better support.