Spatiotemporal changes and management measure to enhance ecosystem services in the Mongolian Plateau

The eco-environment in many underdeveloped areas is vulnerable. Elucidating the changes and Trade-off and synergy relationships in ecosystem services (ESs) is a fundamental basis for achieving sustainable Ecosystem service bundle development in these regions. Utilizing multiple data sources and models, we quantiffed water Mongolian plateau Spatial planning provision (WP), habitat quality (HQ), carbon ffxation (CF), soil conservation (SC), and wind erosion prevention (WEP) on the Mongolian plateau during 1992–2018. We then analyzed the spatial-temporal changes, trade-offs/synergies, and bundles relationship of these ESs. The results indicated there was high spatial variability in ffve ESs across the plateau, with overall higher ESs in forested areas, and grassland and cropland areas had higher WEP values. The annual mean values of WP, HQ, CF, SC, and WEP in the plateau during 1992–2018 were 27.15 mm, 0.57, 176.17 gC⋅m2 , 48.83 t hm2 , and 58.31 t hm2 , respectively. Due to ffuctuations in precipitation, vegetation cover and land use, the ffve ESs decreased from 1992 to 2000s, but increased from 2000s to 2018, Notably, the HQ changed most signiffcantly (p < 0.01), while the WP changed insigniffcantly (p > 0.05). The different ESs on the plateau overall exhibited synergistic effects, trade-offs between several pairs of ESs related to HQ, were observed in cropland areas. We further identiffed ffve distinct categories of ES bundles and proposed targeted recommendations for spatial planning and management of these ESs, tailored to their characteristics. The ffndings offer a valuable reference for high-quality environmental management, as well as the restoration and enhancement of ESs in arid inland areas in a warming climate.