Economic-environmental evaluation of silvopastoral systems in Colombia: Their potential for generating payment for ecosystem services

Colombia's cattle sector holds considerable socioeconomic importance but causes substantial environmental impacts. Conventional production relies mainly on extensive, low-productivity monoculture pastures, whereas silvopastoral systems (SPS) may increase productivity, reduce environmental impacts, and support rural livelihoods. However, SPS research remains fragmented, with limited evidence on profitability and the effectiveness of financial mechanisms such as Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES). This study comprehensively compared a conventional cattle-fattening system based on monoculture pastures with an alternative SPS in Colombia. Urochloa brizantha cv. Toledo and Urochloa hybrid cv. Talisman were evaluated as monocultures (M) and in association with Leucaena diversifolia (SPS), under rotational grazing by crossbred cattle. The comparison included soil sampling to assess soil organic carbon (SOC) and nitrogen (N) stocks, a vegetation inventory combined with SOC data to estimate SPS carbon removals assuming participation in the Voluntary Carbon Market, forage measurements through quadrat sampling and tree pruning, and animal productivity based on liveweight gain. An economic-environmental evaluation compared profitability based on cattle revenues and, for SPS, also carbon credit sales. Results showed that SOC stocks differed significantly between SPS tree-canopy areas and both SPS alleys and M, whereas N stocks and forage dry matter did not differ significantly, possibly due to sampling limitations. Animal productivity was significantly higher in SPS than in M, by 81%, resulting in greater profitability and financial resilience. Under a PES scheme valuing the SPS carbon removal rate of 5.37 t CO₂e ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, profitability could increase by USD 49 ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ at a project scale of 100 ha while further improving financial resilience. By significantly increasing production per unit area, SPS may reduce pressure for pasture expansion and deforestation, reinforcing their role as a sustainable intensification strategy. Their greater carbon removal capacity also contributes to climate change mitigation and, through PES, could improve farmers' profitability and resilience. The findings highlight the potential of SPS to promote more sustainable cattle production while preserving the socioeconomic value of the livestock sector in Colombia and other tropical regions